More than half a million babies and toddlers, roughly one in 29, experienced homelessness in 2023–24, and fewer than one in ten were confirmed to have reached an early childhood program. This report shines a light on the gaps and the solutions within reach.
Between birth and age three, a child’s brain develops faster than at any other point in life. Yet a growing number of infants and toddlers move through these years without a safe, stable home — an experience that puts their health, development, and future at risk. For the third consecutive year, SchoolHouse Connection and Poverty Solutions at the University of Michigan analyzed infant and toddler homelessness across all 50 states. This year’s findings reveal just how little is known about how homeless families are accessing services, what the data shows across every state, and the solutions already making a difference. This year’s report also breaks state estimates down by single year of age, expands home visiting data to include federally funded MIECHV programs, and for the first time, estimates homelessness among infants and toddlers on tribal lands.
See how your state is supporting infants, toddlers, and families experiencing homelessness.
Federal law requires states to report how many children experiencing homelessness receive a child care subsidy. States submit that data every quarter. The Office of Child Care does not publish it, and told us it lacked the capacity to provide it — so we asked all fifty states ourselves, and nine answered. HUD reports every child in its homeless assistance programs as one group, birth through 17, so the number of infants and toddlers is unknown. National enrollment data exist for only three program types. This year’s findings reveal how little is known about whether these families are reaching services at all.
Programs and states across the country are proving these barriers can be removed. In Fort Worth, the Center for Transforming Lives reports 91% of the children it serves test ready for school. That’s twice the rate of children entering the local district. In Connecticut, Head Start on Housing uses families’ existing trust in Early Head Start as a pathway to long-term housing stability.
An estimated more than half a million infants and toddlers experienced homelessness in 2023-2024.
SchoolHouse Connection estimates 513,539 children from birth through age three, or roughly one in 29. This is the highest estimate in the three years of this analysis.
Fewer than one in ten infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness were enrolled in Early Head Start, a home visiting program, or a local educational agency early childhood program.
20,428 were served by a local educational agency, 20,840 by Early Head Start, and 9,468 by a home visiting program. No individual program has reached more than 5% in any year of this analysis.
Data on babies and expectant parents experiencing homelessness are inadequate and difficult to access across key federal and state data systems.
Some agencies collect this data and decline to release it, some do not report it by age, and some programs are not required to collect it at all.
State-by-State Data on Infant and Toddler Homelessness
Homelessness impacts infants and toddlers in every state. Use the tabs below to find your state and see a preview of its data, then download the full one-page profile for the complete picture — including estimates broken down by single year of age, from birth through age three, new in this year’s report. Download the full 50-state report here.
ALABAMA
In Alabama, an estimated 5,998 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.55% of all infants and toddlers in Alabama. Only 1 in 16 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 377 children, or 6.29% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 81 are served through Home Visiting, 295 through Early Head Start, and 1 identified and served by a local educational agency. 5,621 infants and toddlers are unserved in Alabama.
In Alaska, an estimated 1,175 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 3.24% of all infants and toddlers in Alaska. Only 1 in 10 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 122 children, or 10.38% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 21 are served through Home Visiting, 97 through Early Head Start, and 4 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,053 infants and toddlers are unserved in Alaska.
In Arizona, an estimated 6,804 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.15% of all infants and toddlers in Arizona. Only 1 in 12 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 580 children, or 8.52% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 151 are served through Home Visiting, 414 through Early Head Start, and 15 identified and served by a local educational agency. 6,224 infants and toddlers are unserved in Arizona.
In Arkansas, an estimated 6,446 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.53% of all infants and toddlers in Arkansas. Only 1 in 7 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 886 children, or 13.74% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 84 are served through Home Visiting, 405 through Early Head Start, 20 through Child Care Subsidy, and 377 identified and served by a local educational agency. 5,560 infants and toddlers are unserved in Arkansas.
In California, an estimated 85,970 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 5.19% of all infants and toddlers in California. Only 1 in 7 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 12,468 children, or 14.50% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 1,010 are served through Home Visiting, 3,156 through Early Head Start, and 8,302 identified and served by a local educational agency. 73,502 infants and toddlers are unserved in California.
In Colorado, an estimated 7,350 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.95% of all infants and toddlers in Colorado. Only 1 in 5 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 1,461 children, or 19.88% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 181 are served through Home Visiting, 589 through Early Head Start, and 691 identified and served by a local educational agency. 5,889 infants and toddlers are unserved in Colorado.
In Connecticut, an estimated 1,621 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.11% of all infants and toddlers in Connecticut. Only 1 in 3 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 501 children, or 30.91% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 208 are served through Home Visiting, 207 through Early Head Start, and 86 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,120 infants and toddlers are unserved in Connecticut.
In Delaware, an estimated 1,225 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.79% of all infants and toddlers in Delaware. Only 1 in 6 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 201 children, or 16.41% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 159 are served through Home Visiting, 41 through Early Head Start, and 1 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,024 infants and toddlers are unserved in Delaware.
In the District of Columbia, an estimated 2,800 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 8.77% of all infants and toddlers in the District of Columbia. Only 1 in 21 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 134 children, or 4.79% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 24 are served through Home Visiting, 97 through Early Head Start, and 13 identified and served by a local educational agency. 2,666 infants and toddlers are unserved in the District of Columbia.
In Florida, an estimated 38,091 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.15% of all infants and toddlers in Florida. Only 1 in 11 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 3,443 children, or 9.04% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 369 are served through Home Visiting, 852 through Early Head Start, 2,175 through Child Care Subsidy (a figure that reflects children through age 2 years 11 months, not the full birth-through-three range), and 47 identified and served by a local educational agency. 34,648 infants and toddlers are unserved in Florida.
In Georgia, an estimated 15,743 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 3.10% of all infants and toddlers in Georgia. Only 1 in 37 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 431 children, or 2.74% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 91 are served through Home Visiting, 326 through Early Head Start, and 14 identified and served by a local educational agency. 15,312 infants and toddlers are unserved in Georgia.
In Hawaii, an estimated 2,320 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 3.81% of all infants and toddlers in Hawaii. Only 1 in 11 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 218 children, or 9.40% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 154 are served through Home Visiting, 64 through Early Head Start, and 0 identified and served by a local educational agency. 2,102 infants and toddlers are unserved in Hawaii.
In Idaho, an estimated 3,257 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 3.58% of all infants and toddlers in Idaho. Only 1 in 6 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 534 children, or 16.40% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 51 are served through Home Visiting, 181 through Early Head Start, and 302 identified and served by a local educational agency. 2,723 infants and toddlers are unserved in Idaho.
In Illinois, an estimated 20,987 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.04% of all infants and toddlers in Illinois. Only 1 in 9 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 2,270 children, or 10.82% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 1,409 are served through Home Visiting and 861 through Early Head Start; local educational agency data was not reported this year. 18,717 infants and toddlers are unserved in Illinois.
In Indiana, an estimated 7,864 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.45% of all infants and toddlers in Indiana. Only 1 in 20 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 393 children, or 5.00% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 77 are served through Home Visiting, 315 through Early Head Start, and 1 identified and served by a local educational agency. 7,471 infants and toddlers are unserved in Indiana.
In Iowa, an estimated 2,328 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.58% of all infants and toddlers in Iowa. Only 1 in 4 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 525 children, or 22.55% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 197 are served through Home Visiting, 294 through Early Head Start, and 34 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,803 infants and toddlers are unserved in Iowa.
In Kansas, an estimated 3,009 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.18% of all infants and toddlers in Kansas. Only 1 in 5 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 615 children, or 20.44% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 158 are served through Home Visiting, 261 through Early Head Start, and 196 identified and served by a local educational agency. 2,394 infants and toddlers are unserved in Kansas.
In Kentucky, an estimated 8,685 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.09% of all infants and toddlers in Kentucky. Only 1 in 23 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 376 children, or 4.33% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 1 is served through Home Visiting, 360 through Early Head Start, and 15 identified and served by a local educational agency. 8,309 infants and toddlers are unserved in Kentucky.
In Louisiana, an estimated 6,399 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.88% of all infants and toddlers in Louisiana. Only 1 in 12 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 550 children, or 8.60% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 44 are served through Home Visiting, 179 through Early Head Start, and 327 identified and served by a local educational agency. 5,849 infants and toddlers are unserved in Louisiana.
In Maine, an estimated 1,334 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.80% of all infants and toddlers in Maine. Only 1 in 5 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 279 children, or 20.91% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 143 are served through Home Visiting, 112 through Early Head Start, 18 through Child Care Subsidy (a figure that reflects children through age 2 years 11 months, not the full birth-through-three range), and 6 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,055 infants and toddlers are unserved in Maine.
In Maryland, an estimated 6,861 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.49% of all infants and toddlers in Maryland. Only 1 in 17 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 398 children, or 5.80% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 54 are served through Home Visiting, 209 through Early Head Start, and 135 identified and served by a local educational agency. 6,463 infants and toddlers are unserved in Maryland.
In Massachusetts, an estimated 12,997 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.66% of all infants and toddlers in Massachusetts. Only 1 in 16 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 824 children, or 6.34% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 283 are served through Home Visiting and 541 through Early Head Start; local educational agency data was not reported this year. 12,173 infants and toddlers are unserved in Massachusetts.
In Michigan, an estimated 11,776 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.84% of all infants and toddlers in Michigan. Only 1 in 6 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 2,043 children, or 17.35% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 639 are served through Home Visiting, 693 through Early Head Start, and 711 identified and served by a local educational agency. 9,733 infants and toddlers are unserved in Michigan.
In Minnesota, an estimated 5,935 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.31% of all infants and toddlers in Minnesota. Only 1 in 2 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 2,575 children, or 43.39% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 42 are served through Home Visiting, 387 through Early Head Start, 2,060 through Child Care Subsidy, and 86 identified and served by a local educational agency. 3,360 infants and toddlers are unserved in Minnesota.
In Mississippi, an estimated 2,609 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.89% of all infants and toddlers in Mississippi. Only 1 in 37 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 70 children, or 2.68% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 0 are served through Home Visiting and 70 through Early Head Start; local educational agency data was not reported this year. 2,539 infants and toddlers are unserved in Mississippi.
In Missouri, an estimated 11,654 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.22% of all infants and toddlers in Missouri. Only 1 in 16 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 744 children, or 6.38% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 250 are served through Home Visiting and 494 through Early Head Start; local educational agency data was not reported this year. 10,910 infants and toddlers are unserved in Missouri.
In Montana, an estimated 2,076 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.63% of all infants and toddlers in Montana. Only 1 in 3 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 707 children, or 34.06% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 184 are served through Home Visiting, 285 through Early Head Start, and 238 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,369 infants and toddlers are unserved in Montana.
In Nebraska, an estimated 1,541 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.56% of all infants and toddlers in Nebraska. Only 1 in 5 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 298 children, or 19.34% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 41 are served through Home Visiting, 232 through Early Head Start, and 25 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,243 infants and toddlers are unserved in Nebraska.
In Nevada, an estimated 5,767 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.28% of all infants and toddlers in Nevada. Only 1 in 15 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 397 children, or 6.88% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 86 are served through Home Visiting, 208 through Early Head Start, and 103 identified and served by a local educational agency. 5,370 infants and toddlers are unserved in Nevada.
In New Hampshire, an estimated 1,166 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.37% of all infants and toddlers in New Hampshire. Only 1 in 11 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 105 children, or 8.92% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 23 are served through Home Visiting, 76 through Early Head Start, and 5 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,062 infants and toddlers are unserved in New Hampshire.
In New Jersey, an estimated 5,883 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.40% of all infants and toddlers in New Jersey. Only 1 in 10 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 598 children, or 10.16% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 146 are served through Home Visiting and 452 through Early Head Start; local educational agency data was not reported this year. 5,285 infants and toddlers are unserved in New Jersey.
In New Mexico, an estimated 3,388 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 3.97% of all infants and toddlers in New Mexico. Only 1 in 3 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 1,293 children, or 38.16% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 126 are served through Home Visiting, 143 through Early Head Start, 439 through Child Care Subsidy, and 585 identified and served by a local educational agency. 2,095 infants and toddlers are unserved in New Mexico.
In New York, an estimated 63,728 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 7.66% of all infants and toddlers in New York. Only 1 in 20 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 3,183 children, or 4.99% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 295 are served through Home Visiting, 1,211 through Early Head Start, 1,430 through Child Care Subsidy, and 247 identified and served by a local educational agency. 60,545 infants and toddlers are unserved in New York.
In North Carolina, an estimated 12,338 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.50% of all infants and toddlers in North Carolina. Only 1 in 11 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 1,074 children, or 8.70% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 109 are served through Home Visiting, 521 through Early Head Start, and 444 identified and served by a local educational agency. 11,264 infants and toddlers are unserved in North Carolina.
In North Dakota, an estimated 979 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.52% of all infants and toddlers in North Dakota. Only 1 in 6 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 159 children, or 16.24% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 23 are served through Home Visiting, 65 through Early Head Start, and 71 identified and served by a local educational agency. 820 infants and toddlers are unserved in North Dakota.
In Ohio, an estimated 11,689 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.25% of all infants and toddlers in Ohio. Only 1 in 7 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 1,749 children, or 14.96% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 274 are served through Home Visiting, 526 through Early Head Start, and 949 identified and served by a local educational agency. 9,940 infants and toddlers are unserved in Ohio.
In Oklahoma, an estimated 8,207 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.23% of all infants and toddlers in Oklahoma. Only 1 in 12 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 677 children, or 8.25% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 75 are served through Home Visiting, 430 through Early Head Start, and 172 identified and served by a local educational agency. 7,530 infants and toddlers are unserved in Oklahoma.
In Oregon, an estimated 6,950 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.36% of all infants and toddlers in Oregon. Only 1 in 6 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 1,120 children, or 16.12% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 98 are served through Home Visiting, 650 through Early Head Start, and 372 identified and served by a local educational agency. 5,830 infants and toddlers are unserved in Oregon.
In Pennsylvania, an estimated 14,617 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.78% of all infants and toddlers in Pennsylvania. Only 1 in 3 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 5,631 children, or 38.52% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 433 are served through Home Visiting, 663 through Early Head Start, 950 through Child Care Subsidy, and 3,585 identified and served by a local educational agency. 8,986 infants and toddlers are unserved in Pennsylvania.
In Puerto Rico, an estimated 1,475 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.98% of all infants and toddlers in Puerto Rico. Only 1 in 10 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 142 children, or 9.63% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 0 are served through Home Visiting, 134 through Early Head Start, and 8 identified and served by a local educational agency. 1,333 infants and toddlers are unserved in Puerto Rico.
In Rhode Island, an estimated 734 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.77% of all infants and toddlers in Rhode Island. Only 1 in 6 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 124 children, or 16.89% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 46 are served through Home Visiting, 60 through Early Head Start, and 18 identified and served by a local educational agency. 610 infants and toddlers are unserved in Rhode Island.
In South Carolina, an estimated 5,406 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.29% of all infants and toddlers in South Carolina. Only 1 in 8 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 712 children, or 13.17% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 181 are served through Home Visiting, 189 through Early Head Start, and 342 identified and served by a local educational agency. 4,694 infants and toddlers are unserved in South Carolina.
In South Dakota, an estimated 1,339 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.94% of all infants and toddlers in South Dakota. Only 1 in 4 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 381 children, or 28.45% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 12 are served through Home Visiting, 101 through Early Head Start, and 268 identified and served by a local educational agency. 958 infants and toddlers are unserved in South Dakota.
In Tennessee, an estimated 10,471 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 3.15% of all infants and toddlers in Tennessee. Only 1 in 48 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 216 children, or 2.06% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 48 are served through Home Visiting, and 168 through Early Head Start; local educational agency data was not reported this year. 10,255 infants and toddlers are unserved in Tennessee.
In Texas, an estimated 39,579 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.50% of all infants and toddlers in Texas. Only 1 in 20 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 1,951 children, or 4.93% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 317 are served through Home Visiting, 1,242 through Early Head Start, and 392 identified and served by a local educational agency. 37,628 infants and toddlers are unserved in Texas.
In Utah, an estimated 4,775 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.61% of all infants and toddlers in Utah. Only 1 in 7 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 697 children, or 14.60% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 115 are served through Home Visiting, 273 through Early Head Start, and 309 through Child Care Subsidy (a figure that reflects children through age 2 years 11 months, not the full birth-through-three range); local educational agency data was not reported this year. 4,078 infants and toddlers are unserved in Utah.
In Vermont, an estimated 547 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.59% of all infants and toddlers in Vermont. About 1 in 4 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness in Vermont — 145 children — were not enrolled in any early childhood program, while 402 children, or 73.49% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness, were enrolled. Within this figure, 12 are served through Home Visiting, 116 through Early Head Start, 270 through Child Care Subsidy, and 4 identified and served by a local educational agency. 145 infants and toddlers are unserved in Vermont.
In Virginia, an estimated 7,102 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 1.85% of all infants and toddlers in Virginia. Only 1 in 8 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 861 children, or 12.12% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 229 are served through Home Visiting, 250 through Early Head Start, and 382 identified and served by a local educational agency. 6,241 infants and toddlers are unserved in Virginia.
In Washington, an estimated 15,370 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 4.56% of all infants and toddlers in Washington. Only 1 in 10 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 1,561 children, or 10.16% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 416 are served through Home Visiting, 663 through Early Head Start, and 482 identified and served by a local educational agency. 13,809 infants and toddlers are unserved in Washington.
In West Virginia, an estimated 4,751 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 6.98% of all infants and toddlers in West Virginia. Only 1 in 20 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 243 children, or 5.11% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 98 are served through Home Visiting, 145 through Early Head Start, and 0 identified and served by a local educational agency. 4,508 infants and toddlers are unserved in West Virginia.
In Wisconsin, an estimated 7,239 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 2.98% of all infants and toddlers in Wisconsin. Only 1 in 8 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 903 children, or 12.47% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 167 are served through Home Visiting, 454 through Early Head Start, and 282 identified and served by a local educational agency. 6,336 infants and toddlers are unserved in Wisconsin.
In Wyoming, an estimated 758 infants and toddlers from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–24 program year — which is 3.11% of all infants and toddlers in Wyoming. Only 1 in 4 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness is enrolled in an early childhood program — that is 205 children, or 27.04% of infants and toddlers from birth through age three experiencing homelessness. Within this figure, 33 are served through Home Visiting, 83 through Early Head Start, and 89 identified and served by a local educational agency. 553 infants and toddlers are unserved in Wyoming.
Homelessness Among Families With Infants and Toddlers Takes Many Forms
It can look like:
A toddler whose family is staying in a shelter with no place to crawl, no quiet place to sleep, and no routine from one night to the next.
A one-year-old who has never been screened for developmental delays because her family has moved frequently since she was born and no program has identified her as homeless.
A mother with a toddler turned away from apartment after apartment because of an eviction on her record that occurred during a period of unemployment.
A family with a newborn staying temporarily in the crowded living room of an acquaintance because the list for housing assistance in their community is long and closed to new applicants.
How Homelessness Affects Infant and Toddler Development
The harms of homelessness on infants, toddlers, and their families are far-reaching and potentially long-lasting. Homelessness can create a negative developmental environment that impedes brain development and can harm lifelong well-being — constantly moving between temporary living situations, staying in confined or crowded places, being surrounded by strangers or a rotating cast of caregivers, and the inability to keep a routine or eat on a regular basis can all compromise healthy development.
Infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness often face significant developmental delays and long-lasting detrimental effects that ripple through the family and community — including cognitive impairments that hinder learning and memory, emotional and behavioral issues such as anxiety, and physical health problems like chronic illness and malnutrition.
The younger and longer a child experiences homelessness, the greater the cumulative toll. Homelessness in infancy is linked to higher rates of asthma and emergency room visits throughout the first six years of life.
Infants and Toddlers Face the Highest Risk of Eviction
Infants and toddlers are the age group at highest risk of eviction in the United States. Children under age five make up the largest group by age of people whose households have had an eviction action filed against them — and the eviction rate for families with children (10.4%) is more than double the rate for households without children (5.0%).
Eviction is rarely a single event. It follows families. Consider a familiar scenario: a mother with a toddler turned away from apartment after apartment because of an eviction on her record from a period of unemployment. An eviction filing can close off housing for years after the fact, which is why families with infants and toddlers often move repeatedly. This can also contribute to why so many end up staying temporarily with others, in motels, or in shelters rather than in a home of their own.
That instability compounds the risk already facing this age group: 15.2% of infants and toddlers live in crowded housing, and 2.9% have moved three or more times since birth — both known to jeopardize healthy development. And because eviction pushes families into exactly the living situations that federal housing programs don’t count, these children frequently disappear from the data entirely.
Congress and local communities can respond by funding eviction prevention and legal services specifically for families with children under three, and by prioritizing families with infants, toddlers, and expectant parents on housing waitlists.
Webinar Replay: Evicting Children — How Babies Bear the Brunt of the Nation’s Housing Crisis and What We Can Do About It
An October 2023 study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that babies and toddlers are the Americans most at risk of eviction — children under age 5 make up the largest age group of anyone whose household has had an eviction filed against them. It’s a pattern that matches shelter data too: the person most likely to stay in a homeless shelter in the U.S. is an infant under age one. Despite these disproportionate risks, and the well-documented harm homelessness does to health, development, and future learning, these children remain largely invisible — to the public, to policymakers, and often to the very early childhood programs and schools positioned to help. This webinar co-presented with researchers from The Eviction Lab at Princeton University breaks down the study’s findings, what they mean for policy and practice, and real strategies to prevent evictions and support families when they happen anyway.
New mothers experiencing homelessness are less likely to receive medical support, and research shows that homelessness during and after pregnancy can shorten the time between pregnancies, putting mothers at greater risk of physical complications. Pregnancy itself also increases the risk of becoming homeless, especially for youth and young adults — being pregnant or a parent is the second greatest risk factor for young adult homelessness, after lack of a high school diploma or GED.
Despite these risks, data on expectant parents is the sparsest of all.
The Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) included a question on housing instability and was the only national source of information on homelessness during pregnancy. It is no longer collected. Some states may gather comparable information through maternal health surveillance or home visiting intake, but no central source identifies which states do so, what they ask, or how that information can be obtained.
Launch Webinar: Join our team for the release of our 2026 report
Date & Time: Thursday, October 8, 2026 (1:00-2:15 PM Eastern)
The SchoolHouse Connection team will walk through our third-annual report, Infant & Toddler Homelessness Across 50 States: 2023-2024. We will share key findings, recommendations for action, and hear from national partners on the impacts of homelessness on young children and strategies to combat it.
The health of our future economy depends on the stability of our youngest citizens. Learning that over half a million infants and toddlers are estimated to have experienced homelessness, and that 90% are cut off from critical development services, is a profound economic red flag. If we fail to invest in these children today, we are actively undermining the foundation of our future workforce.
— Tonya Ware, Mississippi State Director, ReadyNation
Research shows that toxic stress, the kind that is experienced by young children from homeless families, causes negative impacts to the formation of the brain, which can prevent or impede learning. Access to high quality early childhood education such as Early Head Start and Head Start provides critical time intervention, allowing children experiencing homelessness their best chance to succeed in school. At the Center for Transforming Lives, 91% of children test ready for school – twice the rate of children entering our local school district!
— Carol Klocek, President & CEO, Center for Transforming Lives (Fort Worth, Texas)
When infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness are missing from our data, they are too often missing from our response. In Connecticut, Head Start on Housing starts with children and families already connected to Head Start and Early Head Start and uses that trusted connection as a pathway to long-term housing stability, recognizing that housing stability and early childhood development are deeply connected.
— Dr. Shante Hanks, Director, Connecticut Head Start on Housing
Why It’s So Difficult to Count Infants and Toddlers Experiencing Homelessness
No federal agency publishes complete data on how many infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness receive services through federally funded programs. Some agencies collect this information and decline to release it. Some don’t report it by age. And some programs aren’t required to collect it at all.
This isn’t a technical footnote. It has direct consequences:
Early childhood programs are legally required to identify and prioritize infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness for enrollment — but without accurate data, they can’t know whether their outreach is reaching the families the law directs them to serve.
Shelter and housing providers may not design appropriate services or build effective partnerships when their own systems don’t record the ages of children.
States make funding and policy decisions based on documented need. Without data on expectant parents, infants, and toddlers, these families are left out of those decisions.
Congress cannot determine whether the policies it already enacted are being carried out, or whether they’re working.
Federal law requires states to report whether each child receiving a child care subsidy is experiencing homelessness, using the same definition public schools and Head Start use. States submit this quarterly, along with each child’s age and county. The Office of Child Care does not publish it. When SchoolHouse Connection requested the data, we were told the office lacked the capacity to provide it. We then contacted child care administrators in all fifty states directly. Nine responded.
HUD reports children staying in federally funded homeless assistance programs as a single group spanning birth through age 17. As a result, the number of infants and toddlers in these programs is unknown — as is how many are served by emergency shelter versus transitional housing, rapid rehousing, or permanent supportive housing. Compounding this, federal housing programs use a narrower definition of homelessness than early childhood programs do, so most families with babies who qualify under early childhood rules are both ineligible for assistance and absent from the data.
LEAs are required to report the number of children ages birth through two they identify and serve only if they receive a McKinney-Vento subgrant — and only 21% of LEAs do.
The Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) included a question on housing instability and was the only national source of information on homelessness during pregnancy. It is no longer collected. Some states may gather comparable information through maternal health surveillance or home visiting intake, but no central source identifies which states do so, what they ask, or how the information can be obtained.
Solving infant and toddler homelessness requires action across early childhood, housing, homelessness, health care, and data systems — no single sector can do it alone.
Our recommendations follow the four priority areas of the Thrive from the Start policy agenda, a cross-sector effort led by Housing Is, the National Collaborative for Infants and Toddlers, Prevent Child Abuse America, SchoolHouse Connection, and ZERO TO THREE. Within each area, the full report organizes specific recommendations for local providers, states, and Congress or federal agencies.
1. Expand access to shelter, permanent housing, and prevention services
Prioritize families with infants, toddlers, and expectant parents on housing waitlists. Extend the time families with young children can stay in emergency and transitional shelter, review entry and eligibility policies that result in families with babies being turned away, and dedicate local public and private funding to increase access to housing and services. States should fund eviction prevention and legal services for families with children under three, target housing trust funds and rental assistance to families with infants and toddlers, prioritize expectant parents and families with young children for state-funded homelessness assistance, and provide flexible cash assistance — usable for rent, deposits, utilities, and motel stays — to families who meet the broader early childhood definition of homelessness. At the federal level, align HUD’s definition of homelessness with the early care and education definition by passing the bipartisan Homeless Children and Youth Act, increase housing support through the bipartisan Family Stability and Opportunity Vouchers Act, expand the supply of affordable family housing through tax credits and rental subsidies, and fund flexible emergency assistance families can use for motels, utilities, and short-term rent.
2. Increase access to early childhood development programs
Enroll children immediately while families obtain documentation. Partner with local educational agency homeless liaisons to identify and refer families, connect shelter residents directly to early childhood, health, and development programs, and fund navigators who help families reach programs across sectors. States should implement child care priority, waivers, and grace periods for families experiencing homelessness; include homelessness in federal grant programs like the Preschool Development Grant, IDEA Part C plans, and HRSA grants; use Medicaid and Family First funds to reach families with infants and toddlers; and require training on homelessness for early childhood staff, child care resource and referral agencies, and shelter staff as a condition of funding. Congress and federal agencies should support implementation of Head Start and Early Head Start requirements to identify, prioritize, and enroll children experiencing homelessness; issue updated guidance and training on existing homelessness requirements across early childhood programs; increase funding for Early Head Start, MIECHV, child care, and IDEA Part C Early Intervention; and increase McKinney-Vento Education for Homeless Children and Youth funding to expand identification of children not yet in school.
3. Improve data collection, analysis, use, and coordination
Disaggregate homeless management information system data by child age, and share data across shelters, schools, and early childhood programs. Revise intake and enrollment forms and housing questionnaires so their categories align with the McKinney-Vento education definition, and use McKinney-Vento liaison data on young children in local early childhood needs assessments. States should require age disaggregation in shelter and housing data; publish state-level data on infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness, including child care subsidy participation; include data from both early childhood development programs and HUD programs in any state-level homelessness reporting; and include infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness in statewide early childhood needs assessments, including the Preschool Development Grant, MIECHV, and Head Start State Collaboration Office assessments. Congress and federal agencies should require HUD to collect, disaggregate, and report data by the age of children served; direct the Office of Child Care to publish the homelessness data states already report; adopt the education subtitle definition of homelessness across federal programs; and preserve requirements that Head Start programs assess community need, including homelessness.
4. Integrate health care and housing services
Pair case management with shelter and housing to connect families to Medicaid and developmental services, and ensure every infant and toddler has an assigned medical home. Implement housing questionnaires in pediatric care so providers can identify all forms of homelessness — including families temporarily sharing the housing of others. States should include expectant parents and families with infants and toddlers in Medicaid presumptive and continuous eligibility, coordinate home visiting, Medicaid, and housing agencies, and pair housing assistance with access to home visiting and health services, including mental health support. Congress should protect Medicaid coverage and access for families experiencing homelessness, clarify HRSA guidance on collecting home visiting data on families experiencing homelessness, and direct CMS and HRSA to align health care housing screening questions with the McKinney-Vento education definition.
An estimated 513,539 children from birth through age three experienced homelessness during the 2023–2024 program year — roughly one in 29 infants and toddlers nationwide. This is the highest estimate in the three years SchoolHouse Connection has conducted this analysis with Poverty Solutions at the University of Michigan, and it remains a conservative figure, because homelessness among young children is still significantly under-identified.
Federal early care and education law — including Head Start, Early Head Start, child care, and Early Intervention — uses the definition of homelessness in the early care and education subtitle of the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act: lacking a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. Specifically, that includes shelters and transitional housing (including domestic violence shelters, youth shelters, and FEMA trailers); staying in motels or hotels, regardless of who pays; staying with other people due to loss of housing or economic hardship (sometimes called “doubled up” or “couch surfing”); and staying in cars, parks, public spaces, abandoned buildings, substandard housing, or bus and train stations.
“Doubled up” means a family is sharing the housing of others because they lost housing or are facing economic hardship. 75% of school-aged children and youth fall into this category, and it’s one of the most common ways infants and toddlers experience homelessness, and one of the least visible.
It matters because of a definitional mismatch with real consequences. Head Start, child care, and public schools identify and serve families under the McKinney-Vento education definition, which includes doubled-up families and families in motels. Federal housing programs limit eligibility largely to people staying in shelters or in unsheltered locations. That means most families with infants and toddlers who qualify as homeless under early childhood program rules are ineligible for federal homeless assistance and largely absent from federal homelessness data altogether.
A child’s brain develops faster from birth through age three than at any other time in life, and healthy development in those years depends on stability and consistent caregiving. Homelessness disrupts those conditions: families move frequently, stay in places not designed for young children, and experience interruptions in pediatric care, early childhood programs, and community supports. Homelessness during these years harms physical health, mental health, social-emotional growth, and learning.
Children experiencing homelessness are at increased risk for developmental delays, and frequent moves compound that risk by interrupting the screening and referral processes that might otherwise identify a delay and connect a child to services.
Yes. Children under age five make up the largest group by age of people whose households have had an eviction action filed against them, and the eviction rate for families with children is more than double the rate for households without children. An eviction can also follow a family for years, closing off housing options long after the filing itself.
Data on expectant parents is also the sparsest of all. The Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) included a question on housing instability and was the only national source on homelessness during pregnancy. Data collection and sharing has been disrupted and some states have stopped data collection all together.
Of the 513,539 infants and toddlers estimated to have experienced homelessness in 2023–2024, only 50,736 — or 9.88% — participated in Early Head Start, a home visiting program, or an early childhood program run by a local educational agency. No single one of those programs has reached more than 5% of this population in any year of this analysis.
Families face persistent barriers: missing documentation such as birth certificates and immunization records, lack of reliable transportation, not knowing they meet the federal definition of homelessness, and fear that identification will bring law enforcement or child welfare involvement. Those barriers are compounded by limited supply — federal funding for Early Head Start, home visiting, and child care assistance falls well short of the number of eligible infants and toddlers.
Yes — the estimated rate is nearly double the national rate. Bureau of Indian Education schools identified 6.62% of their first graders as experiencing homelessness during the 2023–2024 school year, compared with 3.48% nationally. Applying that rate to children living in tribal statistical areas, reservations, and off-reservation trust lands produces an estimate of 16,795 infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness in these communities.
This estimate is also conservative. Housing instability, overcrowding, and poverty in tribal communities exceed national averages, and barriers to identification are more pronounced. It’s worth noting that BIE schools serve only a small share of Native students — most American Indian and Alaska Native students attend state public schools, which don’t report identification by tribal affiliation, so homelessness among Native infants and toddlers outside these communities can’t be measured with currently available data.
This is the first year we’ve been able to estimate this.
Two things changed. First, public schools identified more students experiencing homelessness, aided by a one-time federal investment that more than doubled the number of school districts with dedicated funding to find and support these students. Because this estimate is based on the share of first graders identified as homeless, the estimate for babies rises when schools identify more students. Second, families with young children faced worsening economic conditions during this period, including the sharpest rise in real rental costs in over a decade, and rising child poverty.
Even with improved outreach, schools identify only a portion of the students who meet the definition — which is why this remains a conservative estimate.
SchoolHouse Connection partners with Poverty Solutions at the University of Michigan to estimate how many children from birth through age three experience homelessness nationally and in each state. The method applies the percentage of first graders identified as homeless in each state — 3.48% nationally in 2023–2024 — to Census population counts for children ages 0, 1, 2, and 3, drawn from the Annie E. Casey Foundation’s KIDS COUNT Data Center. First-grade identification figures come from the U.S. Department of Education’s ED Data Facts.
Enrollment figures come from the Early Head Start Program Information Report, local educational agency data reported through EDFacts, and direct requests to home visiting models (Healthy Families America, Maternal Infant Health Program, Parents As Teachers, and SafeCare). New in this year’s report, state estimates are broken down by single year of age.
No federal agency publishes complete data on how many infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness receive services through federally funded programs. Some agencies collect the information and decline to release it, some don’t report it by age, and some programs aren’t required to collect it at all.
A few specifics: federal law requires states to report whether each child receiving a child care subsidy is experiencing homelessness, and states submit that data quarterly along with each child’s age — but the Office of Child Care does not publish it, and told SchoolHouse Connection it lacked the capacity to provide it. When SHC contacted child care administrators in all fifty states directly, nine responded. HUD reports children in its homeless assistance programs as a single group spanning birth through age 17, so the number of infants and toddlers is simply unknown. And local educational agencies only report on children under three if they receive a McKinney-Vento subgrant — which only 21% of them do.
It varies widely. Every state saw infants and toddlers experiencing homelessness in 2023–2024, and in most, the estimate rose again this year. To see the full picture for your state — including estimates by single year of age — find your state’s one-page profile above, or explore the interactive data dashboard.
If you’re staying in a shelter, a motel, a car, or temporarily with other people because you lost housing, your family likely meets the federal definition of homelessness for early childhood programs — even if it doesn’t feel like what people usually mean by “homeless.” That matters, because it unlocks specific protections:
Early Head Start programs are required to identify, prioritize, and enroll children experiencing homelessness, and to remove barriers to their participation.
Child care assistance programs must prioritize children experiencing homelessness, and many states offer grace periods for documentation like immunization records.
Home visiting programs can meet families where they are — including in parks, libraries, and community centers — which often works better for families moving frequently.
This annual Infant and Toddler Homelessness Across 50 States report is widely cited as a definitive national source on homelessness among the country’s youngest children.
